ENGLISH 101.  ACADEMIC WRITING
 22. Dr. E's grammar sequence

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22-6: Clauses and Sentence Types
(including sentence fragments and run ons)

Lessons 

Module 1

1: Orientation  
2: Goals   

Module 2

  3: Euthyphro  
     4: The Library
 5: The Apology   
    6: Citation   
    7: Crito
    8: Phaedo  
    9: Exam Prep   
10: Plato Exam   

Module 3

11: Research Project 
12: Research 101   
13: Books   
14: the Librarian   
15: the Web   
16: conferences  
17: Joy of Research 
18: Reasoning 

Module 4

19: Outlines 
20: Review the Plan:
21: Language 
22: Dr E's Grammar
23: Peer Review  
24: Hit Parade 

Module 5

25: About the Exam
26: Mock Final 
27: Exam Prep
28: Graduation 

We defined "phrases" as the basic moves that can be made in a language. We looked at eight types--the basic phrase types in English--and we saw a glimpse of how phrases can be added on to provide better detail and to create texture in our writing.

Beyond phrases, the next more powerful word clusters are called the "clauses." A clause is defined as any word group that contains a subject and a verb. ''The frubbs frunked'' is a legitimate clause because, whatever ''frubbs'' are, the grammar tells us that they ''frunked.'' A clause simply needs to have a subject and a verb.

Clauses are important from a technical perspective. If you have ever seen a student flogged for "sentence fragments" (Hacker section 14), "run-on sentences" (Hacker section 15), or "comma splices" (dianahacker.com/pocket/language debates), you know that it's not a pretty sight. These are generally regarded as serious infractions. They can be avoided only by learning to recognize and to classify clauses.

Fortunately, there are only two types. Some clauses can stand alone as sentences ("independent" clauses) and some can't stand alone as sentences ("dependent" clauses). Dependent clauses are fragments that must be completed by joining up with independent clauses.

Independent clauses (complete sentences in themselves):

1. The rain in Spain falls mainly in the plain.
2. The rain falling in Spain runs mainly down the drain.
3. But rain falls in Spain.

Dependent clauses (incomplete fragments):

4. The rain falling in Spain
5. Rain falling in Spain and running down the drain
6. Although the rain falls in Spain

If in doubt whether a clause is independent or dependent, try adding a tag question like "doesn't it?" or "isn't it?" If the resulting question makes sense to you, the clause is independent. If the question is nonsense, the clause is dependent.

1. The rain in Spain falls mainly in the plain, doesn't it? OK--independent clause.
2. The rain falling in Spain runs mainly down the drain, doesn't it? OK--independent clause.
3. But rain falls in Spain, doesn't it? OK--independent clause.
4. The rain falling in Spain, isn't it? nonsense--dependent clause.
5. Rain falling in Spain and running down the drain, isn't it? nonsense--dependent clause.
6. Although the rain falls in Spain, doesn't it? nonsense--dependent clause.

Example #6 above gives some students trouble, since they've heard American movie dialogue or read American novel dialogue in which "although" is used as a substitute for "but." This is a new slang usage of "although," and it is not yet accepted in academic English. In standard usage "although" signals the introduction of a dependent clause whereas "but" signals an independent clause.

Sentence Types

Sentences that consist only of one clause (that is, one independent clause) are called simple sentences. Sentences that consist of multiple independent clauses are called compound sentences. Sentences that mix independent and dependent clauses are called complex sentences.

Compound sentences can be combined in any one of three ways.

, for
, and
, nor
, but
, or
, yet
, so

In the examples below, notice the subject-verb combination on each side of the conjunction; (it is this subject-verb combination that makes the word group a clause instead of a phrase). Also notice the placement of a comma before each fanboy conjunction.

Jo drove, for Al was sleepy........Jo drove. For Al was sleepy.

The night was dark, and the road was slick...The night was dark. And the road was slick.

Neither knew the way, nor did they have a map...Neither knew the way. Nor did they have a map.

They kept going, but they were tired.....They kept going. But they were tired.

They had to drive, or they had to stop...They had to drive. Or they had to stop.

They wanted to go on, yet it was too late...They wanted to go on. Yet it was too late.

They came to a shelter, so they stopped...They came to a shelter. So they stopped.

The semicolon ( ; ) can be used to join two clauses of the same kind. It can be used to punctuate compound sentences because there's an independent clause on each side, as in this example:

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses; they may be joined by a semicolon.

The fanboys list is an exclusive one. Although you can use a comma with a fanboys conjunction, you must use a semi-colon in all other cases. You must use a semi-colon even if you use non-fanboys coordinating conjunctions like the following:

A bright moon rose early; therefore, we could see the trail perfectly.

A bright moon rose early; nevertheless, the trail was still very dark.

A bright moon rose early; moreover, lights from the camp make the hillside plain as day.

A bright moon rose early; indeed, it seemed like day.

........; consequently,
........; furthermore,
........; however,
........; indeed,
........; in fact,
 .......; moreover,
........; nevertheless,
........; then,
........; therefore,

A complex sentence mixes independent and dependent clauses. The difference between them is simple:

an independent clause is any subject-verb combination;

a dependent clause is a subject-verb combination which is preceded by a word that makes the clause dependent on some other clause. "Because" is such a word in the following example:

I understand this. (independent clause)

Because I understand this, I'll be able to pass the exam. (dependent clause)

In other words, dependent clauses are created simply by placing one of the so-called subordinating conjunctions in front of an independent clause. The subordinating conjunctions include the following words: although, after, as, as if, before, because, while, unless, until, and when.

There are two options for combining independent and dependent clauses into complex sentences.

We got hot fudge sundaes after we finished work.
I’m glad I did it although it was hard.
It started to rain before we left.
We took our ponchos because it rained.
No one was there when we got to the stadium.

OPTION 2: put the dependent clause first, add a comma, and follow with independent clause:

After we finished work, we got hot fudge sundaes.
Although it was hard, I’m glad I did it.
Before we left, it started to rain.
Because it rained, we took our ponchos.
When we got to the stadium, no one was there.

Notice that when the dependent clause comes first, it's followed by a comma.

A dependent clause can't stand by itself as a simple sentence. If it's punctuated as a sentence, it's a sentence fragment (Hacker section 14).

We got hot fudge sundaes. After we finished work. fragment!
I’m glad I did it. Although it was hard. fragment!
It started to rain. Before we left. fragment!
We took our ponchos. Because it rained. fragment!
No one was there. When we got to the stadium.  fragment!

Fragments are common in popular writing, but they're rare as cuss words in academic writing. The best policy is to avoid them.